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Ancient History
Graduate Student
B.A., California State Polytechnic Univ. Pomona; M.A., California State Polytechnic Univ. Pomona
Office: HSSB 3225 Hours:
Advisor: John W.I. Lee
My current research interests are concerned with ancient Greek and Roman history. I study agrarian history, ancient environments, urban food production and agricultural slavery in the ancient Mediterranean world. I also study various aspects of World History, as the study of ancient history is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary and interregional in nature. (more...)
I have quite a varied academic background. I received my BS in Agriculture Business Management from the College of Agriculture and an MBA from the College of Business at Cal Poly, Pomona, and I also have an MA in History.
DISSERTATION ABSTRACT
BEYOND THE PLEASURE GARDEN: URBAN AGRICULTURE IN THE ANCIENT MEDITERRANEAN
As new methods continue to illuminate the Roman economy and society, scholars are re-evaluating long-held beliefs regarding the degree of interaction between urban and rural zones. Problems with M.I. Finley’s “consumer city” model have become ever more apparent, a situation which has implications for the study of Rome’s economic, political and social history. For the most part, scholarship regarding Rome’s economy has largely ignored production in urban areas and its role in shaping the empire’s institutions, both in the heart of Roman Italy and throughout its provinces. My dissertation argues, contra Finley, that ancient cities were more than parasitic entities devouring goods from suburban and rural areas. It highlights an often-overlooked aspect of rural and urban interaction: agricultural production in densely populated urban areas. Both physical and textual evidence indicate that urban agriculture was important for the urban food supply and more significantly, it affected the Roman economy and society to a greater degree than has been acknowledged.
The implications of urban food production in ancient Rome are momentous. Both art and literature attest that agriculture was vital to the lives of ancient Romans, both rich and poor. Studying how they envisaged gardens, nature and farming contributes greatly to our understanding of how ancient peoples interacted with their environment. This analysis of urban food production moves beyond simply focusing on the pleasure gardens of the wealthy to illuminate an often-ignored facet of production. The lack of interest is striking, considering the positive and negative consequences of unabated modern urbanization. Gaining greater insight into how ancient populations fed themselves under adverse circumstances (e.g., demographic shifts due to displacement from warfare or natural disasters) aids in understanding the connection between modern agricultural production, urbanization and poverty, especially in the developing world. Environmental concerns are also vital. Ascertaining how ancient peoples generated food sufficient to support a city of perhaps a million inhabitants (in the case of Rome at its height), to say nothing of the vast numbers in the provinces without the advantage of modern agricultural technology, such as synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, genetically modified crops and livestock or even efficient use of animal power may also have beneficial applications in modern pre-industrial societies.
In day-to-day life, urban agriculture contributed greatly to residents’ quality of life, both in terms of the quantity and variety of foods, but also in other tangible ways, such as providing them with the closeness to nature that many Romans, both rich and poor, actively sought. Plants produced locally were used for medicinal and even religious purposes. Rome’s green spaces probably enhanced its air quality. These are but a few of the tangible benefits urban agriculture yields. In short, examining food production in and around cities yields a more complete view of the role of urban zones as consumers in the ancient world by acknowledging their role as producers. Urban agriculture is well-attested in literary sources, but details are lacking. Surviving agricultural treatises do, however, provide a glimpse of life on rural villas, albeit an idealized one, and indicate that goods other than agricultural ones (such as pottery and perhaps textiles) were sometimes produced in rural workshops on villas, which raises an important question regarding agricultural production in urban and peri-urban areas.
Previous scholarship relevant to urban agriculture fits roughly into three categories. The first includes micro studies of urban or villa gardens, consisting of detailed archaeological descriptions of Roman gardens, focusing on their ornamental character as architectural elements rather than their utility for food production. The second category consists of sociological studies regarding urban agriculture in modern pre-industrial societies with a broader concern related to urban development. The third category is the most diverse. It includes studies regarding urbanization and Roman living space, which often briefly address gardens or green spaces. Unlike these earlier projects, however, this dissertation incorporates an integrated approach intended to explore the role of urban agriculture in the dynamic interaction between urban and rural zones. Adopting a comparative methodology, I re-examine ancient evidence by comparing ancient Rome with modern pre-industrial societies and incorporate evidence from new perspectives to address overlooked issues. Studies employing similar comparative analyses can yield important insights, particularly when evidence is lacking in the ancient context but is more abundant in the modern day.
Because they illustrate how urban inhabitants cope with food and resource shortages, several urban centers in Africa and South America are appropriate case studies for comparison with ancient cities. According to UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports, urbanization in these regions is occurring there on a greater scale than anywhere else in the world. Because societies in Africa and South America are anything but homogenous, however, this study utilizes small-scale regional studies to determine the local character of urban agriculture to the greatest degree possible. For example, in some cities, fairly large tracts of land are available within the town for crop growing (not unlike Pompeii), whereas in other, more densely populated cities, farming is largely limited to plants grown on small plots or in containers (which can still be quite productive, as the study will demonstrate) and small-scale livestock production, where animals are raised intensively. It is safe to formulate some generalizations, however. Another benefit of utilizing developing societies for comparison is that their economies are often still characterized more by agriculture, trade and crafts than industry.
The dissertation includes six chapters: Introduction, Geography and Ecology of the Ancient Mediterranean, Sources of Evidence, Plants, Animals, and Conclusions. The introduction provides an overview of urban agriculture and addresses methodology. This dissertation covers the time period ranging from the first two centuries BC through the first two centuries AD, when dramatic changes in migration between the countryside and urban zones affected agricultural production. Population shifts involved all social classes, including people from small, rural farms as well as large urban villas. It was also a period of expanding suburbs and urban zones. The introduction will also address issues regarding why inhabitants chose to engage in urban agriculture, and argues that there were many reasons for investing time and energy into cultivating gardens, and not all of them strictly practical. Caring for plants and animals fills a basic need for a connection to nature, often associated with the notion of a healthy rural life, especially for newly-arrived immigrants from the countryside. In a practical sense, ancient authors echoed the sentiment that living close to nature was healthier than urban living. In short, as in the present day, daily life occurred in ancient gardens, based on the discovery of implements used in activities such as spinning and weaving, suggesting that people, especially women, spent time in their gardens while performing everyday tasks. Nor should the religious significance of agricultural products be overlooked. Plants were grown near temples in sacred gardens specifically because they had religious properties. Cultivation of certain plants could have allowed for their widespread use in rituals and religious festivals at various temples throughout the city. Most gardeners, however, probably farmed for practical reasons. The urban food supply was always a concern to rulers, administrators and inhabitants alike. In terms of simple practicalities, producing one’s own food extends precious resources. Modern studies suggest that growers save substantial amounts of money and other resources producing food themselves, so much so that there is a widespread movement to encourage urban farming (even in many parts of the industrialized world) to offset food costs, especially in times of scarcity or economic downturn.
The Ecology of the Ancient Mediterranean addresses practical considerations such as native species of plants, early domestication and diffusion of crops such as grains, olives and citrus fruits, growing conditions and technical aspects of urban farming. Recent studies have revealed that many ancient cities were surprisingly “green” compared to modern ones with comparable densities. In ancient cities, green spaces often resulted from a lack of formal zoning regulations, but they may have also served a practical purpose, namely to provision the town in the event of a siege. The chapter will also discuss limiting factors such as water availability.
Studying ancient agricultural production is challenging, as both literary evidence and material remains are often fragmentary. The chapter on evidence discusses available sources and methods of analysis. It argues that analyzing both literary and physical evidence and carefully scrutinizing data generated by studying modern pre-industrial agrarian societies where urban farming is an indispensible facet of daily life makes the portrait of agricultural production in ancient Rome more concrete. Authors of surviving agricultural treatises and naturalists such as Pliny the Elder describe ancient gardening practices and the types of food commonly cultivated by different classes of people. Archaeological evidence from Pompeii, where the remains of common foods were found in the homes of inhabitants with different income levels is also invaluable. Surviving frescoes support assertions made by ancient authors regarding the presence of patio gardens. They also provide evidence of what types of crops were grown at various residences and illustrate the mixed nature of horticulture in ancient Rome, namely that food often grew alongside flowers in the gardens of wealthy urban villas. The final part of the chapter discusses approaches to utilizing modern studies regarding urban farming, especially those of the developing world.
The chapter on plants discusses the types of foods grown as well as the cultivation methods used. Evidence suggests that food production was not limited to cities’ green spaces. As urban populations began to increase dramatically, due in part to migration from the countryside, large, multi-storied apartment blocks (insulae) appeared in Roman cities. The living conditions varied considerably but the rooms were often arranged around a courtyard or light well, not unlike many modern apartment buildings. A number of insulae survive, especially in Ostia. Living in apartment buildings did not preclude the possibility of growing food, and may have even encouraged it. Architects seem to have acknowledged the practice and even made adjustments to facilitate it. The presence of patio gardens is well-attested in literary sources. Indeed, this method of urban farming may have constituted the primary type in highly-populated areas of the Roman world. Not only were crops grown on rooftops, but some were even placed in windowsills to make the most of available space. As in many densely populated regions now, land became so expensive near major cities that even marginal plots were productive. Tomb or funerary gardens were common in Rome and elsewhere. Indeed, they continue in the present day. A solution to the problem of expensive real estate was to make tomb plots lucrative by cultivating them as gardens and selling the yield.
The chapter on Animals and Livestock illustrates that urban agriculture does not merely involve cultivation of plant crops and fruit trees, as ancient authors noted. It also involves livestock raising (including traditional types, such as sheep, goats, pigs, cattle and poultry), but also fish, reptiles, bees and other animals and insects considered edible locally. Evidence illustrates that the Romans sometimes intensively raised animals such as rabbits and chickens in cages, but it also suggests that larger livestock, especially sheep, goats and pigs were common in Roman cities. The study will explore the types of livestock kept in densely-populated urban areas, such as the city of Rome itself, as well as the kinds of animals kept at urban villas. Many questions surround livestock production in ancient cities, but modern studies suggest that it is often significant, as it contributes greatly to the diet of urban residents.
The Conclusions chapter will focus particularly on the implications of urban agriculture in the ancient world. Following in the tradition of historians such as Thomas Gallant, the study seeks to formulate hypothetical models of ancient households and their dietary needs. The conclusions will address topics such as the importance of urban farming in light of daily caloric requirements for different ages and genders, available labor in model households (slave labor), carrying capacity and yield variation with different cultivation styles and plots (container gardens as opposed to different size garden plots). It focuses especially on urban food supply, namely how persons of different class and status obtained their food. In the present day, despite its potential for producing food for impoverished inhabitants in cities around the world, urban agriculture has been largely ignored by scholars and even agricultural planners. Recent studies, however, illustrate the commercial value of food produced in urban areas and its importance as a survival strategy among the urban poor, especially female heads of households. Thus, another important issue concerns gender. Because of the vital role women play in predominantly agrarian societies, it is not surprising that studies reveal that they are often urban farmers. Many ancient sources likewise reveal that it was largely the duty of a wife was to provide her household with produce from the garden, so the comparison is accurate.
The amount of food produced in antiquity certainly affected the urban diet, an issue that continued to spark conflict throughout Rome’s history, in the form of adjustments made to the grain dole and even in attempts to control how products were sold and distributed. The study will demonstrate that ancient cities were indeed producers, even in terms of goods scholars usually relegate to the countryside, such as agricultural products, illustrating that the distinction between town and country is a blurry one. Urban agriculture is vitally important because simply put, food is an aspect of life that transcends culture and time period. Whether in modern developing societies or ancient ones, people were and continue to be concerned about food supply. Political, social and economic institutions differ, but the common denominator is that people are preoccupied with feeding themselves, and will utilize every available venue to plan for the future. A state’s food supply underlies all other elements of life. It serves as the foundation on which all else--culture, government, economy--is built, so it is difficult to overstate its importance. Since the ancient world had a largely agrarian economy, food was power, and those who controlled the food supply often controlled the people, or at least had great influence over them. As modern studies demonstrate, urban agriculture is especially significant in times of food stress, and occasionally can mean the difference between life and death. Thus, laying a foundation for the study of urban food production reveals that it is an area worth investigating in greater detail. Undertaking a more encompassing project that examines a great volume of studies regarding modern urban agriculture has the potential to completely change the way in which we view ancient farming. Hopefully, further research can shed light on unanswered questions and further illustrate the resourcefulness of the many millions of people in ancient cities who struggled to feed themselves and their family when survival was often in doubt.
Dissertation Title- Beyond the Pleasure Garden: Urban Agriculture in Ancient Rome
Teaching Assistantships- Spring & Summer, 2007-2012: ES 3: Introduction to the Social & Cultural Environment
Environmental Studies: UCSB. Prof. Greg Graves
- Winter, 2012: ES 188: Environmental Ethics
Environmental Studies: UCSB. Prof. Greg Graves
- Winter, 2009: Hist 2B: World History (1000-1800)
Department of History: UCSB. Prof. Luke Roberts
- Fall, 2009: Hist 2A: World History to 1000
Department of History: UCSB. Prof. Elizabeth DePalma Digeser
- Fall, 2007, 2008: Hist 4A: Western Civilization
Department of History: UCSB. Prof. Roberta Mazza
- Summer Session B, 2007-2010: Freshman Summer Start
Freshman Summer Start Program: UCSB. Prof. Ralph Gallucci (Classics)
Publications- Czepiec, Helena, Patricia M. Hopkins, Juanita Roxas and T. E. Watts. “College Students as E-Commerce Consumers: Cross-National Comparison of the US, Philippines and Australia.” Abstract published in the Proceedings of the Direct Marketing Educator’s Association Conference, held October 15 to October 18, 2000 in New Orleans, Louisiana.
- Czepiec, Helena, Patricia M. Hopkins, Juanita Roxas and T. E. Watts. “Advertising and Media Perceptions among University Students in the US, Philippines and Australia.” Published in the Proceedings of the Marketing Educator’s Association Conference, held April 18 to April 22, 2001 in Waikaloa, Hawaii.
- Czepiec, Helena, Juanita Roxas and T. E. Watts. “Cross-National Psychographic Profiles of Generation ‘Y-ers.’” Published in the Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the World Association for Case Research and Methodology Application, held June 30 to July 2, 2002 in Mannheim, Germany.
- Czepiec, Helena, Juanita Roxas and T. E. Watts. “The Nature of Global Awareness of Generation ‘Y-ers:’ Cross Cultural Comparison Between US and Philippine College Students.” Published in the Proceedings of the International Business Association Conference, held May 7 to May 10, 2003 in New York, NY.
Awards- Esme Frost Fellowship
2011
- William H. Ellison Prize
2009/2010 Academic Year. The William H. Ellison Prize, awarded in memory of William H. Ellison, Professor of History from 1925 to 1948, recognizes the best graduate seminar paper.
- Graduate Division Graduate Opportunity Fellowship
2010/2011 Academic Year
- Interdisciplinary Humanities Center Graduate Collaborative Project Award
Ancient Borderlands International Graduate Student Conference 2007/2008 and 2009/2010
- History Associates Fellowship
2006/2007 and 2010/2011 Academic Year
Conference Presentations- “Deconstructing Town and Country: The Case of Urban Agriculture in the City of Ancient Rome.”
The Third Ancient Borderlands Research Focus Group Graduate Student Conference, UC Santa Barbara, April 14, 2012.
- “Beyond the Pleasure Garden: Agricultural Production in the Ancient Roman City.”
Cities in History: Urban Identities Reconsidered Conference, Fordham University, New York City, Sept. 17, 2011.
- Beyond the Pleasure Garden: Urban Agriculture in the Ancient Mediterranean
City-Empire-Christendom: A Workshop Conference of the California Consortium in Late Antiquity, University of CA, Berkeley, October 22-23, 2010.
- “Like Only Unto Themselves”: Intermarriage, Multiculturalism and the Status of Women in the Anatolian Borderlands
Ancient Borderlands Research Focus Group Meeting. UC Santa Barbara, June, 2007
- Agricultural Slavery in the Ancient Mediterranean
Bondage, Subjugation and Unfree Labor: A Meeting of the MRG in World History, UC Davis, May, 2004.
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